|
Evaluation
Process
Study Procedure
An evaluation committee studied every public
school and its corresponding PRZ for the need for sidewalk improvements.
The study excluded Knox County Vocational and Special Education schools.
The evaluation methodology contained a variety of analyses and a two-level
screening process in which each school’s PRZ attributes were ranked
in order to set a prioritization plan.
While the need for sidewalks within every PRZ was
considered, the evaluation committee had to weigh possible improvements
with fiscal responsibility, recognizing that while desirable, having sidewalks
along every road is impractical. In fact, in some cases, an adequate sidewalk
network already surrounded some schools while in other cases schools are
located in areas of the county that have not received substantial growth
so sidewalks would not be recommended. With the increase in the county’s
population and development this does not mean that eventually sidewalks
will not be needed. This plan should be revisited every 5-10 years so
that recommendations can be adjusted and schools reprioritized.
Evaluation Methodology
The evaluation committee visited each school
to assess the existing sidewalk and roadway conditions and to note where
existing pedestrian generators were located. This on-site data was used
along with background information to help understand the pedestrian issues
within each PRZ. The other data collected include:
- Each Principal of every school was
sent a questionnaire and a survey map. Survey questions ascertained
student enrollment, growth trends, number of walkers, past pedestrian
accidents, and general pedestrian concerns. The survey map allowed each
Principal to mark where he/she thought sidewalks would be best located
near his/her school. All comments were thoroughly reviewed.
- Census and development data were analyzed
for Knox County to determine which areas are currently experiencing
increases in general population, school-aged children, and housing growth.
Areas projected to see these increases were also analyzed.
- A computer program was created using
MPC’s Geographic Information System (GIS) to map the Parental Responsibility
Zone and student addresses. This allowed MPC to overlay the PRZ with
the student addresses to determine the exact number of students residing
within the designated zone and to assess student density in regards
to each PRZ.
- Existing pedestrian plans, greenway
plans, Knoxville Knox County Metropolitan Planning Commission Sector
Plans, and local government Capital Improvement Plans (CIPs) were reviewed
to determine if sidewalks or pedestrian pathway proposals were supported.
Also, proposed sidewalk improvements were reviewed to determine if their
purpose could benefit other pedestrian attraction areas such as parks,
libraries, or major commercial centers.
- The Major Road Plan, which identifies
the functional classification of roads in Knox County, the MPO Long
Range Transportation Plan, and local traffic counts were analyzed to
determine which roadways currently are projected to be improved in the
future. Traffic volumes on streets near schools were reviewed using
Average Daily Traffic Counts (ADT). Average Daily Traffic is the number
of vehicles that pass a certain point over a twenty-four hour period.
In all, eight categories were established
for the first screening process. Each school’s PRZ attributes were
analyzed and ranked within each category and assigned a numerical value.
The possible values assigned within each category varied by criteria.
During the second screening process, the final scores of each category
over all the PRZs were analyzed and categorized as high, medium, and low
rank. Then the scores were added together for each PRZ resulting in a
final ranking. This process established a rank of all the schools’
PRZs by order of need with high being those PRZs in the most need of sidewalk
improvements.
The following section explains each criterion the
evaluation committee used to rank each school’s PRZ. For each criterion,
the included table displays the points allowed, the final rank, and the
number of schools that met the rank. The ranked list of the PRZs appears
afterwards.
Top
of Page
MPO Long Range Transportation Pedestrian Plan
The Knoxville Urban Area Metropolitan Planning
Organization (MPO) is responsible for transportation planning in Knox
and Blount Counties. The MPO is required to develop a long-range, multi-modal,
transportation plan that includes pedestrian facilities, including sidewalks.
The Knoxville Urban Area Pedestrian Network Plan (PNP) is an existing
pedestrian plan intended to provide policy guidance to local government’s
development process and capital improvement plans. The PNP shows a proposed
network of major pedestrian ways and suggests several policies in which
to provide sidewalk improvements. Table 1.1 shows the scoring used for
identifying roadways, which abut the schools and are included within the
PNP.
|
Table 1.1 MPO Long Range Transportation
Pedestrian Plan
|
|
School abuts road identified in plan
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
More than two roads
|
3
|
High
|
3
|
|
More than one road
|
2
|
High
|
18
|
|
At least one road
|
1
|
Medium
|
36
|
|
No roads
|
0
|
Low
|
20
|
|
Source: MPO Long Range Transportation
Plan, 1999.
|
Ability to Link Existing Sidewalks
Certain areas of Knoxville and
Knox County already have some sidewalks though they are often randomly
placed, fragmented, or not connected. Improvements to an area that could
bring a benefit of connecting a larger system of sidewalks are seen as
a positive benefit. Table 1.2 displays the points allocated to each PRZ
if implemented sidewalk improvements link to existing sidewalks.
|
Table 1.2 Ability to Link
Existing Sidewalks within PRZ
|
|
Existing sidewalk network can be linked by key
improvements
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
Definitely
|
3
|
High
|
30
|
|
Somewhat
|
2
|
Medium
|
20
|
|
Can Not or No Existing Sidewalks
|
1
|
Low
|
27
|
Top
of Page
Benefiting An Adjacent School
A sidewalk investment that could benefit
more than one school was seen as a positive. With PRZs either being one
mile or one mile-and-a-half from a school a majority of PRZs have more
than one school. Whether or not another school over a mile away can benefit
might be hard to prove. So, for this exercise, the criterion is restricted
to schools on the same campus or directly adjacent to each other. Table
1.3 reflects the points allocated to PRZ’s if more than one school
is on the same campus or directly adjacent to another school.
|
Table 1.3 Benefiting An Adjacent
School
|
|
Number of Schools that would benefit
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
More than two
|
3
|
High
|
10
|
|
More than one
|
2
|
Medium
|
8
|
|
None
|
1
|
Low
|
59
|
Connecting With Pedestrian Generators
Residual benefits such as connecting
to libraries, parks, or commercial centers can also be a benefit and were
considered in this evaluation. For each PRZ, points were given based on
if pedestrian generators were located to the north, south, east, or west
of the school, within the PRZ.
|
Table 1.4 Connecting With
Pedestrian Generators
|
|
Connects to other pedestrian generators in how
many directions
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
All directions
|
4
|
High
|
9
|
|
Three directions
|
3
|
High
|
20
|
|
Two directions
|
2
|
Medium
|
20
|
|
One direction
|
1
|
Low
|
15
|
|
No significant generators
|
0
|
Low
|
13
|
Number of Students within PRZ
The actual number of students within
the PRZ that might benefit from a sidewalk is an important consideration.
Student density in PRZs ranged from 6 in a rural area to as many as 543
in an urban area. Please note that the elementary school criteria is different
than the middle and high schools because the PRZ distance varies.
|
Table 1.5 Elementary School
Students within the PRZ
|
|
Number of Students
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools*
|
|
More than 327
|
4
|
High
|
3
|
|
231 - 326
|
3
|
High
|
3
|
|
136 - 230
|
2
|
High
|
14
|
|
39 - 135
|
1
|
Medium
|
20
|
|
0 -38
|
0
|
Low
|
11
|
|
Source: MPC. Data: Knox County School
- School Year 1998/1999
*Totals for Elementary, Intermediate,
and Primary Schools
|
Top
of Page
|
Table 1.6 Middle/High School
Students within the PRZ
|
|
Number of Students
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
More than 437
|
4
|
High
|
2
|
|
316 - 436
|
3
|
High
|
0
|
|
196 - 315
|
2
|
High
|
12
|
|
76 - 195
|
1
|
Medium
|
7
|
|
0 -75
|
0
|
Low
|
5
|
|
Source: MPC. Data: Knox County School
- School Year 1998/1999
|
MPC Road Classification of Abutting Roadways
The classification of roads abutting
the school property can be an indicator of traffic volumes and pedestrian
safety issues. Therefore, Table 1.7 shows the points allocated for each
abutting roadway’s functional classification category.
|
Table 1.7 Abutting Roadway
Classification Ranking
|
|
Roadway Classification
Point Assignment
5 = Expressway
4 = Major Arterial
3 = Minor Arterial
2 = Major Collector
1 = Minor Collector
0 = Local
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
10
|
High
|
1
|
|
9
|
High
|
0
|
|
8
|
High
|
3
|
|
7
|
High
|
1
|
|
6
|
High
|
5
|
|
5
|
High
|
4
|
|
4
|
Medium
|
20
|
|
3
|
Medium
|
12
|
|
2
|
Low
|
13
|
|
1
|
Low
|
9
|
|
0
|
Low
|
9
|
|
Source: MPC Functional Classification
Note: If school abuts more than
one street, point assignments for all streets were added together.
|
Top
of Page
1999 Traffic Volume on Abutting Roadways
The greater the traffic volumes the
more pedestrian concerns seem to arise. Table 1.8 displays the point scale
used for the ADT of abutting roads.
|
Table 1.8 Abutting Roadway Traffic
Volume Ranking
|
|
1999 Traffic Volume
Point Assignment
(Vehicles Per Day)
4 = More than 25,000
3 = 10,001 - 24,999
2 = 10,000 - 4,001
1 = 1,501 - 4,000
0 = 1,500 - 0
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
7
|
High
|
3
|
|
6
|
High
|
0
|
|
5
|
High
|
0
|
|
4
|
High
|
6
|
|
3
|
High
|
16
|
|
2
|
Medium
|
25
|
|
1
|
Low
|
19
|
|
0
|
Low
|
8
|
|
Note: If school abuts more than one
street, point assignments for all streets were added together.
|
Projected Increase in School Children
Ages 5-9 by 2007
The long-term future of an area needs
to be considered when making an investment decision. Using the United
States Department of Housing and Urban Development Community 2020 Report,
the year 2007 estimated population for ages 5-9 was used for several reasons.
First, major sidewalk improvements need to be fiscally budgeted, designed,
and built. Optimistically, it will take several years to see a substantial
improvement made; therefore, it is important to make sure an investment
will still be needed several years from now. The evaluation committee
chose to use the 5-9 population projections (see Table 1.9) because there
was a drop in all other school-aged children over the next five years.
In fact almost all Census Tracts in the near future show negative growth
in school aged children. The next projected boom of school aged children
is the 5-9 age group in 2007. Therefore this group was considered in the
analysis.
|
Table 1.9 2007 Projected Increase
of School Children Ages 5-9
|
|
Number of Children
|
Total Points
|
Final Rank
|
Number of Schools
|
|
More than 398
|
4
|
High
|
7
|
|
250 - 397
|
3
|
High
|
0
|
|
102 - 249
|
2
|
Medium
|
30
|
|
1 - 101
|
1
|
Low
|
39
|
|
0
|
0
|
Low
|
1
|
|
Source: Department of Housing and Urban
Development Community 2020
|
The Next Step
For each category the points allowed
were converted to high, medium, or low. Then each school was given a composite
rank based on how many highs, mediums, or lows the school received. This
composite rank was used to rank all of the school’s PRZs within a
finalized list. This final list represents both the PRZ with the highest
need for sidewalks as well as the PRZ being the most cost-effective investment
for Knox County with "High" being the PRZ with the most need
or benefit.
Top
of Page
Construction
Costs and Funding Options
Construction Costs
Sidewalk costs vary greatly depending
on whether or not the sidewalk is included in reconstructing a roadway
or if the project is being built along an existing roadway. Items such
as grading, utility relocation, culverts and pipes, curb work, tree removal,
and an occasional property acquisition can effect each project differently.
Sidewalk construction costs can range from
$12.50 to $120 per linear foot. When included in a roadway construction
project, the cost of a sidewalk is approximately $12.50 per linear foot.
This figure is deceptive because the cost of widening the road, grading,
and curb work is typically charged to a different phase of the roadway
project and in this way reduces the actual cost of sidewalk construction.
If required as part of a development, sidewalks are typically funded by
one of two ways. A developer can subcontract the construction for approximately
$12.50 per linear foot or the sidewalks can be built with the developer’s
crew at, possibly, a slightly reduced cost. Once again, these costs can
vary depending on site preparation conditions.
Adding a sidewalk to an existing roadway
can cost $70 to $80 per linear foot. Table 2.1 shows an example of the
projected cost for constructing sidewalks near Halls Elementary. This
example is for illustrative purposes only and the exact cost can not be
calculated without a detailed engineering plan.
|
Table 2.1 Estimated Cost of
Sidewalk Additions within the PRZ of Halls Elementary School
|
|
Sidewalks
|
On All Streets
|
On Major Streets
|
|
One Side
|
Two Sides
|
One Side
|
Two Sides
|
|
Length (Linear Ft)
|
70,000
|
140,000
|
16,800
|
33,600
|
|
Cost (per Linear Ft)
|
$70
|
$70
|
$70
|
$70
|
|
Cost to Build (includes
Curb)
|
$4,900,000
|
$9,800,000
|
$1,176,000
|
$2,352,000
|
The cost to put sidewalks on one side of
every street within the Halls Elementary PRZ is $4,900,000. If you extrapolate
this cost to cover the 77 Knox County schools the amount of funding needed
is staggering. A more realistic option is to place sidewalks along major
streets. For the Halls Elementary example this would include sections
of Emory Road, Andersonville Pike, Norris Freeway, Broadway/Maynardville
Highway, and McCloud Road. While typically it is recommended to have sidewalks
on both sides of major streets in certain circumstances, putting sidewalks
on one side can save funds. This decision can vary with pedestrian traffic,
vehicular traffic, and land-uses along the roadway. For the Halls Elementary
example, the cost of putting sidewalks on only one side of the major streets
is approximately $1,200,000. When this number is extrapolated over 77
schools the amount is over $92 million.
Top
of Page
Funding Opportunities for Sidewalks
Funding sidewalk improvements out
of the local government’s general fund or including sidewalk improvements
as part of a road project are the most typical ways to fund sidewalk construction.
Another way, and less costly to local government, is to require developers
to install sidewalks as part of their development. In the foreseeable
future these three methods will remain the most viable. However, there
is a variety of sources, programs, and mechanisms to fund sidewalk improvements.
Generally, the four areas of funding that exist are federal, state, local,
or private. It should be recognized that many of the federal and state
programs provide funding to local municipalities based on a formula or
set allocation and many of the sources discussed have been in existence
for some time. The use of an existing fund for sidewalk improvements might
alter the typical use of those funds, which could result in other programs
or projects going unfunded.
Local Funding Options
The General Fund of the local government
is a primary source of transportation improvement and maintenance funding.
The City of Knoxville’s Capital Improvements Program has set aside $200,000
for a Sidewalk Safety Program. This ongoing program replaces broken sidewalks
and constructs missing pedestrian links where needed. Knox County, the
City of Knoxville and the Town of Farragut fund sidewalk projects out
of their capital budgets as part of road projects as well as when requests
are made and if funding is available.
Other ways to fund sidewalk improvements
through the local jurisdictions are listed below.
- Bond Financing
Bonding helps local governments pay
for projects by establishing a payment plan over the life of the facilities.
- Motor Vehicle Registration Fees (MVRF)
MVRF are additional fees that are
collected when vehicles are registered with the local jurisdictions.
This fee is used in every state and does not provide a sizable portion
of the highway budget but does offer predictable income.
- Property Tax
Property tax is the chief source
of local revenue. The funds are distributed to a General Fund and then
appropriated for transportation purposes. These taxes are dependent
on local economic conditions. However, they remain a steady and reliable
source of revenue. A separate tax for transportation capital improvements
can be implemented by voter approval.
- Local Gasoline Taxes
Gas taxes are authorized under the
Tennessee Code Annotated and allow local governments to impose an additional
tax to support local public transportation services but not sidewalk
or pedestrian improvements. Imposition of the tax requires a majority
vote in a public referendum. The tax revenue depends on tax rate, driver
sensitivity to price, administrative costs, population, and real travel
patterns. In Tennessee a local gasoline tax cannot exceed 1 cent per
gallon. Lack of public acceptance has been the greatest obstacle to
the imposition of the local gasoline tax.
- Sales Tax
A sales tax is one of the most commonly
used and the second largest source of local revenue for state and local
jurisdictions in the country. This tax is on the sale of consumer goods
and services and purchases by business firms of items for business use.
The tax is a function of the tax rate, use of funds, and of redistribution
formulas. A sales tax is generally more acceptable to citizens than
other taxes since the tax is collected in small amounts which are not
highly visible to consumers. However, the tax is very responsive to
the inflation rate and a decrease in sales lowers the revenue potential
from this funding source.
- Wheel Taxes
Wheel taxes are authorized under
the Tennessee Code Annotated to impose a local motor vehicle tax to
provide revenue for county purposes. Imposition of the tax requires
a majority vote in public referendum or a two-thirds vote of the county
legislators at two consecutive meetings. Revenue potential of the local
motor vehicle tax depends on the following factors: tax rate, driver
sensitivity to price, administrative costs, and the number of registered
vehicles. The high tax rate may encourage some motorists to register
their vehicle in a county that does not have a local motor vehicle tax.
Administrative costs are likely to be low because local motor vehicle
departments are already organized to collect state taxes and fees. A
disadvantage of this tax is that the tax revenues do not have to be
earmarked for transportation.
- School Board Authority
An amendment to local or state statutes
would allow the School Board to build sidewalks on property not owned
by the school board. However, the School Board has no taxing authority
and a majority of its budget comes from Knox County. While the School
Board could designate some of its capital improvement funds to sidewalk
construction it probably should occur through the Knox County Department
of Engineering and Public Works.
- Private or Corporate Funding
Private or corporate funding to support
safety and non-motorized transportation projects has occurred in other
communities. Some of the donations come through local annual gift commitments
for service or civic clubs. To receive private funding a program would
need to be established to solicit contributions. The program would need
to be marketed and ultimately responsive to see that donations get used
to build sidewalks. Some communities establish programs that allow individuals,
subdivisions, or homeowner associations to donate funding or pay for
sidewalk improvements. Many communities that have these types of programs
will match community funds for sidewalk improvements therefore moving
them up on the priority list.
- Other Local Options
Other options to fund sidewalks include
a payroll tax, income tax, severance tax, drivers license fees, parking
tax, and the lottery. The payroll tax, income tax, parking tax, and
the lottery are used in relatively few states, but can offer a small
additional revenue source. The severance tax can be imposed on resource
extracting industries, such as oil, gas, coal, or other natural products.
This tax is used to help pay for the cost of providing roads to these
industries. The drivers license fee has limited revenue potential but
it does offer a stable source of money. Public acceptance is important
when instituting taxes and user charges, which often require a public
referendum, and can also influence the feasibility of other types of
revenue sources or strategies.
Top
of Page
Specific Legislation or Ordinance
The following are several legislative
options or ordinances, which have been implemented in other cities to
help fund sidewalks and other improvements. Most of these suggestions
require private investors or developers to pay a fee for the construction
of the development to help pay for the impact the development has on the
entire community. Enacting these ordinances would require an initiative
from the local council or commission as well as input from developers
and residents.
- Subdivision Regulation or Development
Ordinance
Ordinances can be passed which require
all developers to install sidewalks at the time of development. Many
communities have this requirement and find it to be very beneficial
in creating connected communities as well as increasing the quality
of life for residents.
- Special Assessment or Taxing Districts
Special districts are designated
areas within which properties are assessed a charge sufficient to defray
the costs of capital improvements that benefit the properties within
the district. The assessed charge can be designated to either commercial
or residential properties or both. Transportation Development Districts
(TDD) are one example of these districts used to finance transportation
improvements. The TDD has the power to issue bonds to pay for construction
that can benefit the area instead of the local jurisdiction to fund
the project.
- Impact and Utility Fees
Impact and utility fees are
one time fees that are imposed by local governments on new developments
to help pay for capital facilities. They are mainly used to extend utilities
or put in traffic or pedestrian enhancements that serve the area. A
fee is typically assessed on the square footage of the planned development
or building. In some cases, the granting of a building permit is made
contingent on payment of the fee. To implement this impact fee, it must
be demonstrated that improvements are necessary and are caused by the
new development. These fees are enacted by local ordinance and are usually
favorable because the new development is creating these development
needs.
Top
of Page
State Funding
The Tennessee Department of Transportation
(TDOT) constructs hundreds of millions of dollars in road projects each
year. Since most of these dollars are spent reconstructing and building
new roadways, ensuring that pedestrian facilities are incorporated into
these projects will help increase the likelihood that sidewalks will be
funded on major roadways.
Federal Funding
In 1991, Congress passed the Intermodal
Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA), a landmark transportation
legislation, that recognized the increasingly important role of walking
in creating a balanced transportation system. Building on ISTEA, the Transportation
Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), passed in 1997, provides the
funding, planning, and policy tools necessary to create more walkable
communities. Most of the major Federal programs under TEA-21 provide funding
for pedestrian projects. However, most sidewalk projects, either constructed
with a roadway widening or alone require a 20 percent match and must be
sponsored by the local jurisdiction.
- Surface Transportation Program (STP)
Projects eligible for funding under
this program include construction, reconstruction and rehabilitation
of any Federal-Aid Highway, rural minor collector, or bridge project
on any public road. Sidewalk construction is an eligible activity as
long as the roadway is on the State Functional Classification System.
All projects funded by the STP must be included in the Transportation
Improvement Program (TIP) which is a three to five year capital plan
for roadway construction and must have a 20 percent local match. Knox
County, the City of Knoxville, and the Town of Farragut officials may
submit applications to the Metropolitan Planning Organization for funding.
- Enhancement Program
Ten percent of each State’s annual
STP funds are set aside for the Enhancement Program. The Enhancement
Program funds projects that add community and environmental value to
the transportation system. Sidewalk construction is an eligible activity
as long as the sidewalk links other pedestrian generators together.
The local jurisdiction must provide a 20 percent match and grant applications
are usually available each spring from the Tennessee Department of Transportation.
- Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality
(CMAQ)
The CMAQ program is to fund transportation
projects or programs that will contribute to reducing congestion and
improving air quality. These funds have been used to construct sidewalks
within a Knox County school’s PRZ; however, these funds can not be used
to maintain or fix deteriorating sidewalks. CMAQ funds are very limited
and are awarded on a competitive basis. Projects are evaluated and selected
by its effectiveness in improving air quality and reducing congestion.
Local jurisdictions can apply for this grant every year to the Metropolitan
Planning Organization.
- Other Federal Funding Sources
Other federal funding sources include
new programs such as the Transportation and Community and System Preservation
Pilot Program, Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation
Act and other non-transportation funding sources such as Community Grants.
- The Transportation and Community
and System Preservation Pilot Program (TCSP) funds projects
or planning studies that address the relationship between transportation
and community and system preservation. Specifically, eligible projects
must improve the efficiency of the transportation system, reduce
environmental impacts of transportation, reduce the need for costly
future public infrastructure investments, ensure efficient access
to jobs, and identify strategies to encourage private sector development
patterns which achieve these goals. Sidewalk projects have been
funded through this grant throughout the country but they generally
linked pedestrian generators and included improvement in the land
uses and streetscapes. This nationwide grant is awarded yearly and
is very competitive. Congress has also begun to designate these
projects on a yearly basis.
- The Transportation Infrastructure
Finance and Innovation Act (TIFIA) helps local jurisdictions
focus on finding other means to finance projects. More specifically,
the idea is to promote the use of potential money available from
private capital leveraged by federal loan guarantees. These programs
and options allow governments to finance projects and are able to
start projects at a quicker pace instead of waiting years to get
to the front of the line for federal funding and matches. The TIFIA
promotes using public-private financing options to fund transportation
projects. These financing options include direct loans, loan guarantees,
use of donated property, and in-kind contributions.
Other innovative financing techniques are
available for cities to enact or legislate. These techniques include federal
loans, capital leasing, tax increment financing, Transportation Utility
Districts, and tapered funding.
Top
of Page
|